Because he is so original and ignenious, it is hard to know exactly what theories of Frye's to take as fact and which to dismiss as a really really really interesting (if not necessarily accurate) take on what the Bible is doing. To me, one of the most fascinating things that Frye talks about in his book is the idea of the visible and invisible worlds. According to Frye, while some schools of Christian thought insist that the invisible world is (by its very nature) the higher order of reality, the Bible does not see it this way.

Frye uses the analogy of the air as a good example of the existence of the invisible world. If we could see the air, then in effect we could see nothing, as the air is everywhere and we would not be able to see anything but the air. He uses this analogy to explain why God must (by nature) be invisible. He also uses the metaphor of light, which we only see as a reflection. What he is getting at is that something visible must come from something invisible, because of its essence, if it did not, then it would not be created. Frye says that if God were not invisible, then the world could not be visible. While he doesn't expressly say it, from my reading of the text I came to understand another implication of what Frye says. I think that it is logical to say that God must be invisible because, as the Bible says, God is everywhere. So, just like the air, if God were not invisible, we could see nothing, because all we could see is God. As it is, we see evidence of God's hand, but by the very definition of God, we cannot see Him. I don't think that this is a stretch from Frye's original argument, because Frye uses the analogy of air before he explains the relevance of the visible and invisible worlds and Creation, and the Bible tells us that God is omnipresent - thus he is everywhere at the same time - much like air is everywhere.

I also found some interesting evidence that supports Frye's argument. In the first chapter of John, a very famous passage explains how the Word became flesh (Jesus) and how the Word was God and tells of the nature of God. One interesting verse toward the end of the opening passage is verse 5, which states, "The light shines in the darkness, but the darkness has not understood it." It seems possible to interpret this verse as supporting Frye's hypothesis. It can be assumed that Jesus is the light, as that is often how Jesus was represented - he is described as a light shining among the darkness and when is transfixed, his face shines like the sun, and his clothes become as white as the light. If Jesus is the light and Jesus is the Word, and if the Word is God, then God must be light. So, in effect, the verse tells us then that God shone through the darkness (or the visible world) and the darkness has not understood it. One can read this passage as telling us, then, that the world that God created has not understood the light, or that the world does not understand God. This is very much a consistent Biblical theme. If that is indeed an accurate reading of the verse, then we see that Frye's theory holds up quite well in the context of the way the book of John describes the nature of God.

I have to say that my favorite chapter in the entire Bible has to be 1 Corinthians 13. Paul's address on love is both a rejection of legalism: "If I have the gift of prophecy and can fathom all mysteries and all knowledge, and if I have a faith that can move mountains, but have not love, I am nothing. If I give all I possess to the poor and surrender my body to the flames, but have not love, I gain nothing" and an expression of the extreme value of love: "Love is patient, love is kind. It does not envy, it does not boast, it is not proud. It is not rude, it is not self-seeking, it is not easily angered, it keeps no record of wrongs. Love does not delight in evil but rejoices with the truth. It always protects, always trusts, always hopes, always perseveres.
Love never fails." In my mind, it stands as a very humanistic statement.

In fact, throughout the Old Testament, we find that there is a definite emphasis on faith and following the law. Yet Christ's (and Christian) teachings seems to emphasize the value of humanity over law. This perhaps nowhere more clearly evident than in Jesus's Sermon on the Mount and by his statement in Matthew 12: If you had known what these words mean, 'I desire mercy, not sacrifice,' you would not have condemned the innocent." In this way, authentic Christian teaching seems very attractive.


It is interesting to note that the Paul who wrote 1 Corinthians 7, which says - "It is good for a man not to marry" in the NIV translation, or in the Harper Collins: "It is well for a man not to touch a woman". Continuing, "To the unmarried and the widows I say that it is well for them to remain unmarried as I am. But if they are not practicing self-control, they should marry. For it is better to marry than to be aflame with passion." His stance on marriage as a concession to the weak seems very cold and very anti-humanistic. Yet in 1 Corinthians 13, we see another side of Paul. This is the Paul who tells us of the power of love, not the evils of lust. And while the love that Paul speaks of is different in both cases, his humanity resonates in the second.

As far as today's presentations went, I like how Marlowe and Emily looked at the same subject. I thought that learning about why something happened and well as how is vitally important. From all the presentations that I saw, I thought that Marlowe's stuck in my mind the most because of the startling facts that he had on Nero. Very graphic but very effective.

Also, I thought that both presentations on women in the Bible were interesting, and I particularly found Tara's to be educational. I thought that she had interesting points about the nature of society in Ancient Israel as being quite heavily patriarchical, though we find that in many of the stories attributed to the J writer, the narratives are far more complex than simply portraying women as evil or stupid. As Tara said, there were a number of very capable, intellegent and ultimately effective female characters in the Old Testament - women such as Sarah and Rachael. This is interesting to note, because in ancient Hebrew society, and nearly all ancient societies for that matter, women played a very marginal role. Yet we find that the Old Testament is full of interesting and crafty women, a number of tricksters.

I also liked the presentation on the J writer portraying God as infinitely powerful.

I enjoyed some of the presentations the past couple of days. I thought that Lindsay's presentation was very interesting and I like that she used Hallelujah by Jeff Buckley to emphasize her point. In listening to the song again, it seems to hold more meaning. Also, I like the fact that she took an original viewpoint on the relationship between Wanda and Jacob in The Slave, as it is infinitely more interesting to listen to creative new ideas than to have someone rehash what you've already read in Frye or Bloom. I

I am, however, not certain that I agree fully with the idea that the relationship between Wanda (or Sarah) and Jacob was necessarily not a love relationship, I look at the story as a kind of reconciliation between the pious Jew and the purity of the heart of someone trying to fulfill some very legalistic aims and the power of human affection. In this way, I think that the book exists as a marriage of religion and some of the themes of humanism. One of the reasons that I say this is because of all of the characters in the novel, Sarah is perhaps the most innocent. She only sins when she is trying to help Jacob or express her love for him. In the end, even the faithful villagers conceed that Sarah is "a daughter of Moses" and allow the lovers' bones to buried alongside one another. I think that if Singer would have wanted to emphasize that love expressed by the primary narrative of The Slave was really a fraud, he would have been far more explicit.

As I said though, I thought that Lindsay had a very interesting presentation because of the fact that it was not only original, but it put the Jeff Buckley song into a whole new context for me. (And no, I am not just complementing her presentation so I could disagree with it, I genuinely found it very interesting.)

I also liked Kim's original use of visual aides, very clever.

Matt McLeod's Paul

This is a copy of the video that I tried to show in class.

I have found that because of the speed of the dialog in my film, it is difficult to take in all of the information, so here is a reproduction of the script:

Paul's Fictional Letter to a Roman Believer

Dearest Brother,

Grace and peace I give to you in our Lord Jesus Chirst. I wish to share with you some of my experiences overt the past few years that I might show you how the grace of our Lord manifested itself in my life. Though I have been stoned, flogged, cursed, arrested, jeered and humiliated, I still proclaim Christ's holy Gospel daily on the streets. Beloved, I must share these memories with you.

Brother Barnabas and I had just sailed back to Antioch, where we had been commended to the grace of God for the work we had completed. When we arrived we called the church together and related all that God had done with us and how he had opened a door of faith for the Gentiles. Then several men from Judea came to Antioch and were teaching the brothers: "Unless you are circumcised according to the custom of Moses, you cannot be saved." Barnabas and I had words with these men and were chosen to travel to Jerusalem to discuss the question with the apostles and elders. When we arrived, we were greeted warmly by the church, but a group of believers that belonged to a sect of the Pharisees stood up and said of the Gentiles: "It is neccessary for them to be circumcised and ordered to keep the law of Moses."

Then Barnabas and I told the assembly of the signs and wonders that God had done through us as witness to the Gentiles. We convinced many believers that we should not trouble the Gentiles who are turning to God, but should encourage them only to abstain from their sins.

Brother Barnabas and I later had a dispute over whether or not we should bring brother Mark with us on our next missionary journey. Mark had deserted us in Pamphylia and I felt brother Silas would be a better choice. Barnabas took Mark with him to Cyprus, while Silas and I left for Syria and Cilicia. In Lystra, we met Brother Timothy. We eventually arrived in Phillippi, a Roman colony in Macedonia. One day, we met a slave girl who had a great spirit of divination. I ordered the spirit out of her in the name of our Lord Jesus and the girl was healed.

But when her owners saw that they could no longer make money off of her condition, they had us flogged and thrown into prison. At about midnight, brother Silas and I were praying and singing hymns to God that the other prisoners might hear, when the hand of our Lord touched the earth and the ground began to tremble. The earthquake was so violent that the doors of the prison were flung open. The jailer drew his sword to slay himself, since he supposed the prisoners had escaped, but I called out to him that we were all still there. He kneeled before me and asked what he must to do be saved. I told him to believe in Christ Jesus and he and his household would be saved. He and his family immediately repented and were baptised and Silas and I were set free.

Brother Silas and I passed through Amphipolis and Apollonia, and I was chased out of Thessalonica in the middle of the night. I traveled to Athens, and was saddened to see that the city was full of idols. I told the Athenians that I saw that they were very religious. I implored them not to worship the unknown, but to worship the one known God, the creator of the universe. I sailed to Corinth, where I met Silas and Timothy again, and then to Ephesus, where a riot broke out. Then to Troas, Macedonia and Greece. I traveled back to Jerusalem, where I visited brother James.

Soon after, I was preaching in the temple, when I was seized by an angry mob. I was hauled before a court and a council, a tribune, a high priest, two governors and a king. Each time I pled my case, explaining how I had persecuted Christians before our Lord had appeared to me in a vision and I dedicated my life to serving Jesus. I now sail for Rome to appeal to the Emperor. I have told my captors that my only prayer is that they become as I am, but without the chains, of course. Yet I am afraid, brother, of what may happen to me. God give me strength, as he did his Son in the garden of Gethsemane, and may I never abandon him as did all others that fateful night, for I know that he shall not abandon me. Have faith dear brother, I feel his hand still in mine. I will see you soon, God willing.

In Christ,

Paul

My portion of our presentation was on the second half of the book of Acts. Since I had some technical difficulties showing the short film I made for my presentation, I thought it would be good if I could post in on my blog, which I did.

The Film:

Basically, the film is a fictionally story of a letter that Paul writes to a friend in Rome, before he sets sail from Jerusalem. I wanted to humanize Paul a bit, not only to tell what had been happening to him in the second half of Acts, but also to look at what this must have been like for Paul himself. So that's the story behind that.

This is what my handout that went with the film said:

Overview of the Second Half of Acts

Acts 14: Paul and Barnabas are persecuted in Iconium and flee to Lystrea, where Paul is stoned and left for dead, before getting up and returning to the city. The next day Paul an Barnabas leave for Derbe and eventually leave for Antioch. Back in Antioch, Paul and Barnabas report "all that God had done with them, and how he had opened the door of faith for the Gentiles." (Verse 27)

Acts 15: Some Judean Christians come to Antioch and begin to that “unless you are circumcised according to the custom of Moses, you cannot be saved." (Verse 1) Paul and Barnabas dispute the men, and both are soon appointed to travel to Jerusalem to discuss the question with the apostles and elders. There a group of believers belonging to a sect of the Pharisees preached the same doctrine that the Judeans had espoused, though Peter, adressing the assembly, agreed with Paul and Barnabas, stating: "Brothers, you know that some time ago God made a choice among you that the Gentiles might hear from my lips the message of the gospel and believe. God, who knows the heart, showed that he accepted them by giving the Holy Spirit to them, just as he did to us. He made no distinction between us and them, for he purified their hearts by faith. Now then, why do you try to test God by putting on the necks of the disciples a yoke that neither we nor our fathers have been able to bear? No! We believe it is through the grace of our Lord Jesus that we are saved, just as they are." (Verses 6-11) Luke, the author of Acts, agrees with Peter, writing, "It is my judgment, therefore, that we should not make it difficult for the Gentiles who are turning to God. Instead we should write to them, telling them to abstain from food polluted by idols, from sexual immorality, from the meat of strangled animals and from blood. For Moses has been preached in every city from the earliest times and is read in the synagogues on every Sabbath." (Verses 19-21) The council then drafts a letter to Gentile believers in Antioch, Syria and Celicia effectively disputing what the Judeans and others had preached concerning circumcision, sending Paul and Barnabas as emissaries to the cities. At the end of the chapter Paul and Barnabas have a falling out over whether or not they should bring Mark along with them on their return visit to the cities they had visited on their last journey. Barnabas feels strongly that Mark should be included; Paul says that he should not be included because he had abandoned them in Pamphylia and opts instead to travel through Syria and Cilicia with Silas. Barnabas takes Mark with him and sails for Cyprus.

Acts 16: Paul and Silas travel to Derbe and Lystra, where they meet Timothy, the uncircumcised son of a Greek father. After being circumcised, Timothy joins Paul and Silas as they travel Phrygia and Galatia, and finally to Troas, where Paul recieves a vision in which a man from Macedonia pleads to him to save Macedonias. After converting a woman named Lydia in the Macedonian city of Philippi, where Paul drives a demon from a possesed slave girl. The girl's owners become angry when the realize that they can no longer profit from the girl's condition and have Paul and Silas thrown in prison. That night a violent earthquake hits the city, causing the prison's doors to be thrown open and the all prisoner's chains to be broken. When the jailer supposses that all of the prisoners must have escaped, he draws his sword to kill himself, before Paul stops him by calling out, "Don't harm yourself! We are all here!" (Verse 28) The jailer asks Paul what he must do to be saved and Paul tells him that he must ask Jesus for salvation and he and his family will be saved. The jailer brings Paul and Silas to his home and his family repents and are saved, while Paul and Silas are set free.

Acts 17:After traveling through Amphipolis and Apollonia, the pair come to Thessalonica, where their preaching causes such an uproar that they have to be hustled out of the city in the middle of the night. After a stop in Beroea, where Paul leaves Silas and Timothy, Paul travels to Athens and is distressed to find the city full of idols. He tells the Athenians that he realizes that they are very religious people, but that they were worshiping man-made idols and the unknown, thus they worshiped nothing. Says Paul: "For as I walked around and looked carefully at your objects of worship, I even found an altar with this inscription: TO AN UNKNOWN GOD. Now what you worship as something unknown I am going to proclaim to you." (Verse 23) Paul implores them to worship the one known God, creator of the universe.

Acts 18: Paul leaves for Corinth, where he meets up with Timothy and Silas once again. One night Paul has a vision, and the Lord appears to him saying: "Do not be afraid; keep on speaking, do not be silent. For I am with you, and no one is going to attack and harm you, because I have many people in this city." (Verses 9-10) Paul stays for a year and six months teaching in the city streets and synagogues. Later Paul returns to Antioch, and we are introduced to the ministry of an Ephesian Jew named Apollos.

Acts 19: While Apollos stays in Corinth, Paul travels to Ephesus, where he expounds on the subject of the Holy Spirit and the purpose of baptism. We find out that the seven sons of a high priest named Sceva have been driving out demons by repeating the name of Christ. One day, when driving out an evil spirit, the evil spirit leaps into each of them and they become overpowered and flee naked and wounded out of the house they had been practicing the exorcism in. Paul causes a riot in Epheses when he insults Artemis, goddess of the moon (also known as Cynthia, the daughter of Leto and Apollo.)

Acts 20: After the uproar dies down, Paul sends for his disciples and promptly leaves for Macedonia with a handful of them, including Timothy. Later, in Troas, Luke includes the rather humorous story of Eutychus, a young man who falls to his death after falling asleep sitting in a window during one of Paul's late sermons. Paul seems calm and unpreturbed as he comforts the believers, telling them that the boy still has life in him. He promptly heals the boy and continues to speak until dawn. Paul then travels to Miletus, where he sends a letter to the Ephesian elders, reminding them of some of the basic tenants of Christ's teaching including: not valuing one's life, watching over the flock, not coveting one another's silver, gold or clothing and helping the poor and weak.

Acts 21: Paul soon sets sail for Jerusalem; after a long journey with several stops, Paul makes it to the holy city, and visits James before being seized by an angry mob that had been encouraged by a group of Asian Jews. He is beaten, arrested and is about taken to the Roman barracks before he appeals to the tribune, explaining that he was not the Eygptian who had recently led a revolt, telling him: "I am a Jew, from Tarsus in Cilicia, a citizen of no ordinary city. Please let me speak to the people." (Verse 39)

Acts 22: Paul begins to address the crowd, telling them about his dramatic conversion. He begins by telling them of his backround in Tarsus and his previous vicious persecution of the early Church. Says Paul:

I persecuted the followers of this Way to their death, arresting both men and women and throwing them into prison, as also the high priest and all the Council can testify. I even obtained letters from them to their brothers in Damascus, and went there to bring these people as prisoners to Jerusalem to be punished.About noon as I came near Damascus, suddenly a bright light from heaven flashed around me. I fell to the ground and heard a voice say to me, 'Saul! Saul! Why do you persecute me?''Who are you, Lord?' I asked.'I am Jesus of Nazareth, whom you are persecuting,' he replied. My companions saw the light, but they did not understand the voice of him who was speaking to me.'What shall I do, Lord?' I asked. 'Get up,' the Lord said, 'and go into Damascus. There you will be told all that you have been assigned to do.' My companions led me by the hand into Damascus, because the brilliance of the light had blinded me.A man named Ananias came to see me. He was a devout observer of the law and highly respected by all the Jews living there. He stood beside me and said, 'Brother Saul, receive your sight!' And at that very moment I was able to see him.Then he said: 'The God of our fathers has chosen you to know his will and to see the Righteous One and to hear words from his mouth. You will be his witness to all men of what you have seen and heard. And now what are you waiting for? Get up, be baptized and wash your sins away, calling on his name.'
Paul then relates this story to why he came to minister to the Gentiles. The crowd begins that he should not be allowed to live. The tribune orders that he be brought to the barracks, where Paul reveals that he is a Roman citizen as the soldiers are about to beat him. The tribune orders Paul set free.

Acts 23: The tribune orders Paul to stand before the entire council, where he insults high priest Ananias. Paul then makes a remark about being on trial concerning the hope of the resurrection of the dead, which bitterly divides the sentiments of the Pharisees (who believe in all three resurrections) and the Sadducees (who believe in none). The Pharisees declare that Paul has done nothing wrong, though the soldiers haul him back to the barracks for fear that he might be torn to pieces by the angry crowd. Paul later learns from his sister of a planned attempt to murder him; he reports this to the tribune, who sends him to Felix, the Governor of Caesarea. Felix orders that Paul be kept under guard at Herod's headquarters.

Acts 24: Five days later, Ananias and number of elders travel to Caesarea to report their case against Paul, calling him: "a troublemaker, stirring up riots among the Jews all over the world...a ringleader of the Nazarene sect [that] even tried to desecrate the temple." (Verses 5-6) Paul then pleads his case, defending himself by stating his views on the ressurection and explaining the situation. Felix is already well-informed with "the Way" (or Christianity) and seems undecided on what to do. He adjourns the hearing and says that he will decided Paul's fate when Lysias, the local tribune, comes to Caesarea. Yet Felix leaves Paul in prison for two years, until Porcius Festus, the new governor, succeeds him.

Acts 25: Three days after Festus arrives in Caesarea, he travels to Jerusalem, where the Jews that had accused Paul give a report against him. Festus returns and sends for Paul, asking him if he would like to be tried in Jerusalem. Paul knows that Festus is trying to do the Jews a favor by returning him and asks that he be tried in Caesarea, so he appeals to the emporer. Festus consults King Agrippa, who wishes to hear Paul's case for himself.

Acts 26: Yet again, Paul finds himself pleading his case, as he is dragged in front of King Agrippa. Paul delivers an impassioned appeal to the King, trying to convert him, to which Agrippa responds: "You are out of your mind! Your great learning is driving you insane." (Verse 24) Agrippa later warms to Paul and his passion, and tells Festus that he had done nothing wrong and that he could have been set free had he not appealed to the Emporer.

Acts 27: Paul sets sail for Rome alongside a kind prisoner named Julius. Off the coast of Crete, a strong storm begins to rise, and Paul barks out orders in an attempt to save the ship and prevent its passengers from going hungry. The ship is eventually wrecked off of the coast of Malta, and the soldiers plan to kill the prisoners so that none might swim away and escape. The centurion, who wishes to save Paul's life, prevents them from carrying out their plan and allows the prisoners to swim or float safely to land.

Acts 28: The Maltan natives show the survivors unusual kindness and build them a fire that they might keep warm in the rain. As Paul gathers a bundle of firewood, he is bitten by a poisonous viper. When Paul fails to drop dead from the viper's poison, the natives begin to worship him as a god. He later heals all of the natives' diseases before the company is rescued by a ship three months later. On arrival in Rome, Paul is allowed to live in peace, although he is assigned one Roman soldier to guard him. Paul meets with Jewish leaders in Rome and continues to preach in the streets of Rome for two more years.

Reading Frye has been really informative for me. I find everything he has to say very compelling, if not always believable. Whether I buy into everything he says is hardly the point, though, as I think that his book (or his half of the book I should say) has been very intellectually stimulating, and he uses a wealth of evidence and simple illustrations to get his point across. On of the points he made that I found interesting was this:

In his chapter on Ecclesiastes, he talks about how the erratic history of Israel was bound to influence the complex nature of wisdom in Biblical tradition. He compares the concept of wisdom in long-established, sturdy civilizations like China, where steady Confucianism held sway over traditional thought for thousands of years. Compared to Chinese history, the history of Israel is, according to Frye, a "manic-depressive chart of ups and downs." He says that reason and wisdom in the Bible, which often seems varying and rounded, is the direct result of the nature of Jewish history. In concept, this seems to hold true.

He then goes on to contrast the idea of wisdom, which he classifies the wisdom of the Bible as, with the idea of superstition. The difference, says Frye, is that the former is flexible, adapting and evolving according to circumstances and conscious of its own effectiveness and truth, while the latter is inflexible, as it is merely the repeating of an act regardless of whether it has lost any power or meaning. Thus, the superstitious do not question why they continue with their acts, they simply mindlessly repeat them.

Looking at the New Testament, it strikes me that the writers, and Jesus, of course, clearly reference the text as a fulfilment of the Old Testament. Mark begins his gospel by saying "It is written in Isaiah the prophet: "I will send my messenger ahead of you, who will prepare your way; a voice of one calling in the desert, Prepare the way for the Lord, make straight paths for him. And so John came, baptizing in the desert region and preaching a baptism of repentance for the forgiveness of sins." Jesus himself says that he came to fulfill the law, not to abolish it. I think it is safe to say that Frye has it right when he says that we need to look at the Bible as a whole, because it clearly references itself as a whole. I say this because it seems to me that Isaiah, as an Old Testament prophet, clearly speaks about events which occur in the New Testament, so not only do you have New Testament writers referencing their writing as based on the Old Testament, but you also have evidence that the Old Testament referenced itself as the foundation of what was to come in the New Testament.

Having finished The Slave a few days ago, I can now post on the remainder of the book. I was suprised that throughout the book, Isaac Singer uses a number of paradoxes. Consider:

(1) Singer seems to indite his own Jewish faith for enslaving its followers in excessive legalism, yet he also celebrates Jacob's faith and shows this through Jacob's consistant commitment to the rituals of Judiasm.

(2) The people of Pilitz are often seen as extremely faithful, yet at the same time superstitious.

(3) Jacob fights a constant battle between chastising himself for his unrighteousness in marrying outside of the faith and justifying the act.

(4) The Jews in Pilitz show little compassion for Jacob, Sarah and her child when she dies and she is found out to be a convert, yet when Jacob returns he is welcomed, and when he dies, he and Sarah are celebrated with their own shared tombstone and buried together. In death, Jacob is labeled as "a saint" and Sarah is recognized as not only a "daughter of Israel", but "a virtuous woman."

(5) The ferryman comes across as both wise and compassionate, yet a godless heathen; the emissary from the holy land is also seen as kind and faithfully instructs Jacob to rescue his son, yet is later discovered to be a heretic.

(6) Sarah's father is portrayed as a decent man, whom Sarah believes she will meet in the afterlife - yet if her and Jacob's faith is to be believed, her Christian father will end up in hell.

Finally, the most obvious paradox, one which Singer spends a great deal of time discussing:

(7) Jewish believers in Pilitz practice faithfully the rituals and ceremonies pertaining to Jewish customs, yet the community is full of gossip and slander, and the Jews steal from one another and fight amongst themselves - following God's commandment to obey him, while betraying the commandment to treat others with kindness.

The last example clearly parallels Jesus's inditement of the Pharisees in Matthew 23:3 when Jesus exclaims, "Woe to you, teachers of the law and Pharisees, you hypocrites! You give a tenth of your spices—mint, dill and cummin. But you have neglected the more important matters of the law—justice, mercy and faithfulness. You should have practiced the latter, without neglecting the former."

It seems to me that Singer's use of paradox can be seen as portraying the complex nature of faith and human nature, and is also used to lend the book a sense of realism and credibility, as it helps to present a fair, well-balanced picture of life and faith in 17th Century Poland.